Human Anatomy and Physiology

Cards (24)

• 1
  Front

  What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?

  Back

  The axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) and the appendicular skeleton (limbs, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle).

• 2
  Front

  What is the primary function of the periosteum?

  Back

  It is the fibrous membrane covering bone surfaces that provides nutrients, contains nerves, and serves as the attachment point for tendons and ligaments.

• 3
  Front

  What distinguishes smooth muscle from skeletal muscle?

  Back

  Smooth muscle is involuntary, non-striated, and found in organ walls (e.g., intestines, blood vessels), while skeletal muscle is voluntary and striated.

• 4
  Front

  What is the neuromuscular junction?

  Back

  The synapse between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber where acetylcholine is released to trigger muscle contraction.

• 5
  Front

  What are the three functional divisions of neurons?

  Back

  Sensory (afferent) neurons carry signals to the CNS; interneurons process signals within the CNS; motor (efferent) neurons carry signals to effectors.

• 6
  Front

  What is the role of myelin in the nervous system?

  Back

  Myelin sheaths insulate axons, increasing the speed of electrical signal transmission via saltatory conduction.

• 7
  Front

  What is the function of the hypothalamus?

  Back

  It regulates homeostasis by controlling body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and linking the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary gland.

• 8
  Front

  What are the four chambers of the heart and their roles?

  Back

  Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood; right ventricle pumps it to the lungs; left atrium receives oxygenated blood; left ventricle pumps it to the body.

• 9
  Front

  What is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure?

  Back

  Systolic pressure is the force during ventricular contraction; diastolic pressure is the force during ventricular relaxation.

• 10
  Front

  What is the function of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

  Back

  It is the heart's natural pacemaker, generating electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat and set the heart rate.

• 11
  Front

  What is the role of hemoglobin?

  Back

  Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that binds and transports oxygen (and to a lesser extent CO2) throughout the body.

• 12
  Front

  What is the pathway of air through the respiratory tract?

  Back

  Nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.

• 13
  Front

  Where does gas exchange occur in the lungs, and how?

  Back

  Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli via simple diffusion across the thin alveolar-capillary membrane, driven by concentration gradients.

• 14
  Front

  What is the role of surfactant in the lungs?

  Back

  Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing their collapse (atelectasis) during exhalation.

• 15
  Front

  What are the main mechanical and chemical stages of digestion?

  Back

  Mechanical digestion (chewing, stomach churning) physically breaks down food; chemical digestion uses enzymes and acids to break macromolecules into absorbable units.

• 16
  Front

  What digestive functions does the liver perform?

  Back

  The liver produces bile for fat emulsification, detoxifies blood, metabolizes nutrients, synthesizes plasma proteins, and stores glycogen.

• 17
  Front

  Where is the majority of nutrient absorption completed in the digestive system?

  Back

  In the small intestine, specifically via villi and microvilli (brush border) that vastly increase absorptive surface area.

• 18
  Front

  What is the function of the pancreas in digestion?

  Back

  The exocrine pancreas secretes digestive enzymes (e.g., lipase, amylase, proteases) and bicarbonate into the small intestine to neutralize stomach acid and digest macronutrients.

• 19
  Front

  What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

  Back

  Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to a surface or cavity.

• 20
  Front

  What hormones does the adrenal medulla release, and what is their effect?

  Back

  It releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, triggering the fight-or-flight response: increased heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose availability.

• 21
  Front

  What is the role of insulin and glucagon in blood glucose regulation?

  Back

  Insulin (from beta cells) lowers blood glucose by promoting cellular uptake and glycogen storage; glucagon (from alpha cells) raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.

• 22
  Front

  What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

  Back

  Innate immunity is non-specific and immediate (skin, phagocytes, inflammation); adaptive immunity is specific, slower, and produces immunological memory via lymphocytes.

• 23
  Front

  What is the role of B lymphocytes in the immune system?

  Back

  B lymphocytes produce antibodies (immunoglobulins) that bind specific antigens, neutralizing pathogens and marking them for destruction.

• 24
  Front

  What is the function of T lymphocytes in adaptive immunity?

  Back

  Helper T cells coordinate the immune response; cytotoxic T cells directly kill infected or cancerous cells; regulatory T cells suppress excessive immune activity.